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Prenatal exposure to ionizing radiation induces some effects that are seen at birth and others that cannot be detected until later in life. Data from A-bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki show a diminished number of births after exposure under 4 wk of gestational age. Although a wide array of congenital malformations has been found in animal experimentation after such exposure to x-rays, in humans only small head size (exposure at 4 - 17 wk) and mental retardation (exposure primarily at 8-15 wk) have been observed. In Hiroshima, small head size occurred after doses of 0.10 - 0.19 Gy or more, and an excess of mental retardation at 0.2 - 0.4 Gy or more. Intelligence test scores were reduced among A-bomb survivors exposed at 8 - 15 wk of gestational age by 21 - 29 IQ points per Gy. Other effects of in-utero exposure to atomic radiation include long-lasting complex chromosome abnormalities.